Trust is a social glue and lubricant which makes cooperation between individuals easier. Most violent attacks in England and Wales involved no weapon. Stone et al. While illustrative, these reports and studies have important and fundamental limitations. [footnote 18]. It is evident that disparities in recorded offending in relationship to these categories of behaviours begin with inequalities in relation to police contact and in particular the police use of stop and search powers. It is understood that reoffending is a major problem, and this is reflected in governmental statistics. We therefore suggest conducting in the UK context more, for example, ethnographic research in the style of Andersons (1999)[footnote 64] Code of the Streets and Goffmans (2014)[footnote 65] On the Run, and using micro historical case studies as conducted by Ball et al (2019). Having identified these research relevant geographical locations, there would need to be agreements reached between the research team and the relevant local stakeholders (for example, data sharing agreements with and between the local police force, relevant local authorities, and NHS) in order to allow the different stakeholders and the research team to systematically gather primary quantitative and qualitative data in a consistent and comparable way. Although these risk factors are based predominantly on US data (and only supplemented by UK data), there is strong evidence supported by several studies of the generalisability of these types of risk factors to the UK. , It is important that the NCA (2017) report does not provide a definition of a nominal. [footnote 86] The main causes for LCP offenders are thought to be poor attention and hyperactivity (in early childhood), as well as family and societal disadvantages. It could also involve in-depth interviews with victims and perpetrators of crime, as well as police officers and other relevant agencies and stakeholders. [footnote 79] It is relevant to focus on some important academic studies in this field because of what they further expose in terms of the situational drivers of crime. In order to explore the relationship and relative importance of the factors identified in the previous section, we recommend: Apart from utilising more quantitative research methods to examine drivers of crime, it is crucial to supplement these with qualitative methods. 50% of knife crime victims were BAME. They found that adverse childhood experiences and poor mental health were positively correlated with youth and gang violence. The number of knife crimes In England and Wales has risen to a new record high, says the Office for National Statistics. overall, men were 6 times as likely to be arrested as women - there were 20 arrests for every 1,000 men, and 3 arrests for every 1,000 women black men were over 3 times as likely to be arrested. and searches performed in London 2021/22, by ethnicity. While approximately half the increase in robbery, knife crime and gun crime can be attributed to improvements in police data collection, the rest can be largely attributed to drugs and county lines activities. RT @rakibehsan: The English countryside is the least of the average ethnic-minority person's worries tbh. , Mills & Ford (2018). Figures suggest that in 2019 to 2020, BAME people were stopped at a rate 4.1 times higher than White people. Find out about the Energy Bills Support Scheme, The report of the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities: supporting research, Patterns of ethnic disparity in crime based on a review of existing governmental studies, Factors which may be correlated (though not necessarily causative) with people who commit these crimes[footnote 21], Gaps in existing research and evidence to address known data collection and quality issues. The latest police recorded crime figures show that there were 47,119 offences involving a knife or sharp instrument recorded by the police in the year ending September 2020. London is identified as the primary exporting hub, with 65% of the UKs police forces reporting lines into their jurisdiction originating in the capital. [footnote 63] It is not possible to link its findings to other ethnic groups and to other genders. Residential burglary in the Republic of Ireland: A situational perspective. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19, 559-571; Farrington, D. P., Loeber, R., & Berg, M. T. (2012). , Here it is important to note that the academic literature generally refer to three different types of offenders. Those that do compare regions tend to do so by comparing London to the rest of England or the UK. , HM Inspectorate of Prisons (2016). [footnote 66]. The growing trend of knife crime in London is becoming increasingly prevalent in the news media, making headlines across the world. The decontextualised figures supplied in many of the government-mandated annual or biannual statistical bulletins perhaps tell us more about disproportionate police practices (for example, use of stop and search) and potential disparities in the criminal justice system than they can ever reveal about genuine underlying variations in involvement in actual crime. [footnote 87], Late-Onset (LO) Offenders: LO offenders in contrast to LCP offenders seem to begin offending later on life, usually from the age of 21 onwards. In 2021, in London stabbings made up 74.4% of all homicides. Beginning with policing, Harcourts 2006 study in the US found that many interviewees carry weapons because they have limited confidence in the police to protect them from violence. They can be contacted via email at:. and Avary, D. W. (1991). A similar pattern emerged when examining knife crime with injury. Criminal Justice and Behaviour Vol. One of the strongest predictors of reduction in offending was the perceived number of obstacles to desistance. Edinburgh: Scottish Government Social Research; Early Intervention Foundation & Cordris Bright Consulting (2015). Another issue relating to methodology is the fact that most of the research is correlational, so causal relationships cannot be deduced with certainty. Tackling Anti-Social Behaviour. Victims of knife injuries shared a similar profile with offenders. Knife crime . A notable exception to this is the MoJs Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System report in 2018 which analysed homicides in England and Wales. A micro-historical case study of the spread of rioting across North London in August 2011. , Ministry of Justice (2016). A further review by Haylock et al in 2020 of risk factors associated with weapon-related crime for young people aged 10 to 24 within the UK strengthens both of these reports. Understanding the causes of knife crime Motivations for carrying weapons Evidence suggests there are three broad explanations as to why people carry knives1: Self protection and fear ('defensive weapon carrying'), particularly for individuals who have previously been a victim of crime.2 However, it is likely that the precise pattern of local ethnic disparity will vary across location and relate to the demographic makeup of the local population as this relates to age as much as to ethnicity. [footnote 54] These were corroborated by a literature review conducted by Fitch (2009) and by a meta-analysis conducted by Murray and colleagues (2012). The Modern Law Review, 70(6), pp.936-961. In Liverpool and Manchester, nominals were mostly White, and in Birmingham nominals were mostly Asian. The section above demonstrates consistent patterns of disparity where BAME people tend to be more likely to be arrested, charged and convicted relative to White people for the range of specific crimes focused on in this paper. [footnote 9] The NCA (2017) report that of those police forces who supplied them with information, ethnicity of suspected nominals varied according to geographical location. Waples, S., Gill, M., & Fisher, P. (2009). [footnote 37] This report provides an extensive review of several US and UK qualitative and quantitative cross-sectional and longitudinal studies on youth violence and gang involvement (see Table 3). As noted in the Lammy Review: [t]his lack of trust starts with policing, but has ripple effects throughout the system, from plea decisions to behaviour in prisons.. For example, London nominals were reported to be mainly Black. Tackling Anti-Social Behaviour. . Moreover, the research highlights how risk factor-based approaches generally are unhelpful because crime is the outcome of a complex interaction between environmental and personal influences. , Bennett, T., and Wright, R. (1984). Asian victims had a higher proportion of cases where the principal suspect was a partner or ex-partner (19%) relative to Other (including Chinese), White and Black victims (14%, 14% and 6% respectively). Note: * indicates a statistically significant difference. Springer Science & Business Media. This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-report-of-the-commission-on-race-and-ethnic-disparities-supporting-research/understanding-ethnic-disparities-in-involvement-in-crime-a-limited-scope-rapid-evidence-review-by-professor-clifford-stott-et-al, Understanding ethnic disparities in involvement in crime: a limited scope rapid evidence review, Professor Clifford Stott, Dr Matthew Radburn, Dr Arabella Kyprianides and Dr Matthew Muscat. , Stone, A. L., Becker, L. G., Huber, A. M., & Catalano, R. F. (2012). [footnote 58], What can be observed from these studies is a pattern that highlights how a series of interrelated factors appear to be able to predict broad patterns of offending to a reasonable level. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 9(2), 207-224; Cerezo, A. Pyrooz, D. C., Turanovic, J. J., Decker, S. H., and Wu, J. Preventing gang and youth violence: a review of the risk and protective factors. This lack of capacity to undertake fine-grained analysis is a major problem that cannot be easily overcome. Well send you a link to a feedback form. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, (516), 1. , Wikstrm, P. O. H., & Treiber, K. (2016). To view this licence, visit nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3 or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: psi@nationalarchives.gov.uk. For example, Wilson, Stover and Berkowitzs (2009) meta-analysis of several studies found a relationship between exposure to violence and future antisocial behaviour. Offending from childhood to late middle age: Recent results from the Cambridge study in delinquent development. Their analysis also identified several protective factors that work against gang involvement (see Table 4). [footnote 36] Also, the data and analysis is skewed by research from the US, where criminal gang cultures are much more salient and deeply-embedded. Between 2009 to 2010, and 2018 to 2019 the annual stop and search rate in England and Wales reduced from 25 to 7 per 1,000 people. Governmental reports and other research which uses CJS data tends to focus either on the offenders or victims of crimes. , McGee, T. R., & Farrington, D. P. (2010). , Jolliffe, D., Farrington, D. P., Piquero, A. R., MacLeod, J. F., & Van de Weijer, S. (2017). , Ibid. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(7), 769-779. Conversely, White defendants made up the largest proportion of people prosecuted and convicted for possession of Class A drugs in 2018 (23% and 24% respectively) compared with Black defendants (17% and 18% respectively). Stark patterns of disparity do exist outside London, such as in the Dorset Police area where Black people were 25 times more likely to get stopped and searched compared with White people, and 14 times as likely to be arrested. [footnote 50][footnote 51] Evidence exists to show that the installation of electronic immobilisers and improvements in window and door locks contributed to declines in vehicle and residential theft, respectively. An analysis of indicators of serious violence: Findings from the Millennium Cohort Study and the Environmental Risk (E-Risk) Longitudinal Twin Study 2019. Black victims had the highest percentage of homicides where the principal suspect is a stranger (35%) relative to 21% of White victims, and 26% of Asian and Other (including Chinese) victims. For example, a lack of self-control, experience of victimisation, frequency of truanting are factors associated with adverse childhood experience (including abuse, neglect, parental criminality, substance abuse, being taken into care), poor educational attainment and school exclusion. There are powerful limitations in the available data and existing analysis of county lines offending. However, like the governmental reports, academic studies also have important limitations, including: In comparison with other jurisdictions (such as the US), few studies specifically examine violence, gangs, drugs, property crime and antisocial behaviour in the UK context. [footnote 23] Although recorded serious violence has increased in England and Wales, the trends are mixed in relation to antisocial behaviour. [footnote 35] Also, the concepts of gangs and gang membership are problematic. Cullompton: Willan. Ethnic disparities were also evidenced when looking at knife possession. (2009). As we argue above, a big problem with existing studies and reports is that they are essentially all based on the same datasets. [footnote 1], Risk factors are understood to be variables which can usefully predict an increased likelihood of violent crime, drug use, gang involvement, property offences and antisocial behaviour. October 11, 2021. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 18, 417-425; Brennan, I. R., & Moore, S. C. (2009). The Oxford Handbook of Criminology. Having identified these locations, agreements could be developed with relevant local stakeholders (for example, the police force, relevant local authorities, and NHS) to enable the gathering of primary quantitative and qualitative data in a consistent and comparable way. , For example, the meta-analysis by Pyrooz et al. For example, in 2018 to 2019, the Metropolitan Police Service made 48% of all stops and searches in England and Wales. The sample of studies and reports are extremely limited in their capacity to examine actual levels of BAME involvement in crime as opposed merely to recorded offending. European Journal of Criminology, 10(2), 222-236. The second major study on desistance is a UK-based analysis known as the Sheffield Pathways out of Crime Study (SPOOCS). While the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) showed an increase in antisocial behaviour between 2018 and 2019, police data showed a decrease in antisocial behaviour over the last 10 years. Legitimacy, trust and Compliance: An Empirical Test of Procedural Justice Theory Using the European Social Survey in Tankebe, J. and Liebling, A. City. Indeed, the personal histories and perspectives of those who are drawn into the CJS are conspicuous by their absence. In turn, they rely on decontextualised statistics based on fragmented data taken from multiple agencies and organisations. The police statistics show that 41 per cent of those being caught for knife crimes across London's boroughs are now aged between 15 and 19. This work showed that in London in 2017, 50% of knife crime offenders were BAME (up from 44% in 2008). (2016) of 179 empirical studies and 107 independent data explored the relationship between gang membership and offending and found that there is a fairly strong relationship between gang membership and offending. However, an important issue that needs to be taken into account when seeking an explanation for the evident disparities relates to the street-based nature of the crimes under consideration and the prevailing policing practices used in an attempt to control them (for example, stop and search is used heavily to try to prevent, deter and disrupt violent crime, robbery and drugs). [footnote 67] This would help to contextualise patterns of crime among different ethnic groups. We would argue there are at least 2 important reasons for this. For instance, a person may possess all the risk factors identified for violent crime (for example, childhood abuse and neglect) and never commit a violent offence. Firstly, all these studies essentially use the same datasets and other studies which are then based on each other. In contrast to the Serious Violence Strategy, where the evidence of a relationship between ethnicity and violence was at best mixed, the Home Office report of 2019 found no association between ethnicity and serious violence related behaviours (for example, carrying of weapons). , Ibid; Liebling, A., Arnold, H. and Straub, C. (2011). Stats and data | Metropolitan Police Stats and data We're committed to transparency and, as such, we wish to give you as many tools as possible to help you to not only see what your local police force is doing to combat crime but also to be able to identify the different types. [footnote 55][footnote 56] On the basis of these reviews, it appears that a range of different factors are associated with the likelihood of engaging in ASB. (1985). In addition, the interrelated problems identified in the previous section revolved around: All these limitations point to the utility of a relatively large-scale, UK-wide, mixed-method study designed to gather both primary (new) and secondary (existing) data. Centre for Crime and Justice Studies. When relationships between prisoners and prison officers are too close, too informal and lacking boundaries, it can lead to prison officers engaging in acts of corruption. The recent police recorded crime figures published by the ONS showed a 21% increase in the number of knife and offensive weapon offences recorded from 37,706 in year ending September 2021 to. While this study did not focus on offending behaviour, it is reasonable to hypothesise that a lack of legitimacy and result in uncooperative behaviour.
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