Lack of control: Another downside is that the experimenter cannot control for outside variables. Animal research: Serving a vital role in psychological science. Future longitudinal research in this population is necessary to understand the complex psychosocial and physical roles that guide dogs play in the lives of their handlers. Plants lack a nervous system and therefore cannot be used to learn about psycho- logical phenomena. The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. Register for the early bird rate. The systematic literature review was conducted according to The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [21]. Importantly, only a few comparisons were made in the negative direction (2%) indicating that there is limited reason to believe that acquiring an assistance dog is associated with worse functioning. Samples ranged from 15% male to 85% male, with an average of 42% male participants across all studies. Similarly, Crudden et al. The most common provider organizations represented were Canine Companions for Independence (CCI; six mobility service dog studies), Paws with a Cause (four mobility service dog studies), and Hearing Dogs for Deaf People (HDDP; four hearing dog studies). Assistance dog placements and roles have grown rapidly in recent decades, especially in the United States, Canada, and Europe [2]. As a final consideration, it is possible that assistance dogs may not confer significant psychosocial benefits as quantified by some of the standardized measures used. The rationale for excluding qualitative studies from inclusion was to focus on outcomes using standardized measures to facilitate quantitative comparisons across studies. Other countries where studies took place included Canada (3), Japan (2), New Zealand (1), and Sweden (1). However, it should be noted that this study by Allen & Blascovich has received considerable critique due to incredibly large effect sizes, unrealistic retention and response rates, and severe methodological omissions including a lack of reporting on recruitment, funding, or where assistance dogs were sourced and trained [despite repeated requests for clarification; 64, 65]. As the assistance dog itself is the key component of the intervention, details regarding the dogs breeding, rearing, selection, and training, as well as the assistance dog-handler matching process are critical to disentangling potential mechanisms [75]. Importantly, unpublished theses had a similar average sample size as published studies, with similar power to detect effects compared to published studies. Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for psychological Research. Methodological weaknesses including poor reporting of assistance dog interventions and statistical limitations prevent any clear conclusions made regarding the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs on individuals with disabilities. Although outcomes from assistance dog placement for children and adolescents have been quantified with qualitative [e.g., 6971] and observational [e.g., 72] study designs, effects on standardized measures of psychosocial wellbeing including social functioning have not been explored. However, only 44% (12/27) of studies reported statistical values (e.g. Two studies from the a single thesis [29] made the remaining 14 comparisons on measures of loneliness distress and complementary loneliness, finding no significant changes to loneliness six months after receiving a hearing dog and no significant group differences in loneliness compared to those without a hearing dog. Disadvantages of Animal Experimentation Ethical concerns Animals have to die for our research May be considered to be cruel Animal testing may not be acceptable regarding religious aspects Humans should not play god Animal testing can be expensive Animal experimentation may lead to the development of new diseases May be done in an excessive manner In results sections, 15/21 studies with a control or comparison condition (71%) demonstrated that participants in each condition were comparable on demographic variables. Guest [13] used the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], finding less overall mood disturbance, less tension, and less confusion 3-months after hearing dog placement. Even if we accept evolutionary psychology, humans have evolved to be very different from most other animals, perhaps all other animals. We also planned to extract or manually calculate effect sizes to create funnel plots to investigate potential publication biases. Continued efforts are required to improve methodological rigor, conduct replicable research, and account for heterogeneity in both humans and animals to advance the state of knowledge in this field. Table 5 displays all quality of life outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of overall quality of life, life satisfaction, and independence. Answer and Explanation: In the self-evaluation subcategory, 5/19 (26%) outcomes found a significant effect of having an assistance dog on standardized measures of self-esteem, self-concept, and other measures of self-evaluation. Researchers who study nonhumans recognize that their studies may involve certain harms that can range from the relatively minor (e.g., drawing a blood sample) to the more serious (e.g., neurosurgery). Records were independently screened by two authors. However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [3941] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [28]. One of the main considerations in understanding the potential variability across findings is the aspect of time since assistance dog placement. A final potential reason for outcome discrepancies is variation in methodological rigor across studies. You can learn more about some of this research, as well as the ethical and regulatory issues that are involved, by consulting online resources such as Speaking of Research. To achieve the second aim of the reviewto evaluate the methodological rigor of studieseach study was assessed if they met a set of 15 methodological rating items using a scale of yes, no, or N/A (Table 2). Grey literature was addressed by searching ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (ProQuest) and WorldCatDissertations and hand searching the abstracts of the International Society for Anthrozoology and International Association of Human Animal Interactions Organizations conferences. Assistance Dogs International (ADI) defines three types of assistance dogs, of which we use as terminology in this review: guide dogs who assist individuals with visual impairments, hearing dogs who assist individuals with hearing impairments, and service dogs who assist individuals with disabilities other than blindness or deafness [3]. Thorough reporting in terms of the magnitude and variability of effects observed will allow researchers to make informed comparisons across populations and interventions and conduct critically needed meta-analyses in the field. Another potential explanation for inconsistent findings across studies lies in the inherent variability of the assistance dog intervention itself. Regarding emotional health, 7/15 (46%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Research on non-human primates, for instance, continues to offer valuable perspectives into the causes and evolution of individual, social, and reproductive human actions. These are important issues that deserve better understanding and broader discussion. [14] which found significantly higher internal locus of control 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog. Lorenz, animal studies of attachment: Lorenz's research investigates the Evolutionary Explanation of attachment suggesting that infants are pre-programmed to form an attachment from the second that they are born. In parallel with an increasing amount of research quantifying the therapeutic benefits of companion dogs and therapy dogs on human health and wellbeing [5, 6], there has been an increased focus on quantifying the physical, psychological, and social effects that assistance dogs may have on their handlers [79]. However, more than half of all studies (16/27; 59%) had sample sizes greater than or equal to N = 50. purpose-bred from a provider, self-trained) and breeds (e.g., Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Mixes). Table 6 summarizes vitality outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general energy/vitality and sleep. A total of 1,830 records were screened via title and abstract in which 1,576 records were excluded due to irrelevancy (see Fig 1 for PRISMA diagram). In addition to poor methodological reporting, many studies were restrained by statistical weaknesses. Abstract. Studies are often described without specifying that they were animal studies. One author argued that an important methodological issue is the absence of appropriate measures in measuring the effect of an assistance dog on recipients lives [32]. Because medical service dogs are a relatively new category of assistance dog placements [2], there has been less research on the psychosocial effects of medical alert and response service dogs on their handlers. On the other hand, Donovan [28] found no change in emotional functioning 4-months after receiving mobility service dog. Of 34 total quality of life outcomes, 9 (26%) were positive (improved or better quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 22 (65%) were null (no difference) and 3 (9%) were negative (decreased or worse quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions). In a few instances, they represent the only reasonable approach. [16] found no difference in sleep disturbance between individuals with mobility or medical service dog and a control group. A health information specialist (JY) constructed and executed comprehensive search strategies in six electronic databases: MEDLINE (PubMed platform), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) (EBSCOhost platform), ERIC (EBSCOHost), Web of Science Core Collection (Web of Science), PsycINFO (EBSCOhost), and PsycARTICLES (EBSCOhost). [15] found no difference in self-esteem, adequacy, or competency over 12-months following receiving a mobility service dog. This means that any studies on animals cannot be accurately related to humans, making them invalid. Summary of methodological rating scores by each of the N = 27 individual studies. Finally, its important to note that animal research in the United States is very tightly regulated by a series of federal and state laws, policies and regulations, dating back to the landmark Animal Welfare Act from 1966. Increased research on this topic is likely in parallel with the increased roles and demands for different types of assistance dogs worldwide [2] as well as increased interest in the benefits of animal interaction for human health and wellbeing [60]. Undergraduates sometimes ask what the value of animal research is in psychology. The sub-category of loneliness had 19 comparisons in which only 1/19 (5%) was significant. The only other positive outcome was from Allen et al. Alan M. Beck, Summary of quality of life outcomes across studies ordered by sub-category. An analysis of 147 statistical comparisons across the domains of psychological health, quality of life, social health, and vitality found that 68% of comparisons were null, 30% were positive in the hypothesized direction, and 2% were negative. Most studies (15/27; 56%) were conducted in the United States, followed by the United Kingdom (6/27; 22%). However, other studies reported no relationship between having a mobility service dog and self-esteem via the RSES [39, 41] or other standardized measures of self-esteem [15, 28, 36]. Animal experimentation, also called animal testing, has contributed to many important scientific and medical discoveries. The three Rs. While results described positive effects of service dogs in terms of social, psychological, and functional benefits for their handlers, it was concluded that all 12 of the studies had weak study designs with limitations including lack of comparison groups, inadequate description of the service dog intervention, and nonstandardized outcome measures. For general psychological health, 5/11 (45%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with an assistance dog report better psychosocial functioning and wellbeing [16, 17]. Seven studies (26%) had sample sizes less than or equal to N = 20, all of which were longitudinal. In one example, four studies included in this review failed to find significant results in comparisons of depression using the CES-D [28, 3941]. Longitudinal studies have found that individuals report improvements to their emotional wellbeing, social functioning, and quality of life just 3 to 6 months after receiving an assistance dog [1315]. In terms of general social functioning, 2/10 comparisons made were significant. Finally, most studies (21/27;78%) compared outcomes to a control or comparison condition. Only a single study [16] assessed outcomes from child participants under the age of 18 (an additional study [38] had a minimum inclusion age of 16, but the youngest participant was 19). (2017, January 1). Four studies found no effect of having a hearing dog [29] or mobility service dog [39, 41] on the UCLA Loneliness Scale. [32] found that participants reported worse occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a hearing dog while Davis [44] found that individuals with a mobility service dog reported worse occupational functioning compared to a control group. found better social functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16] while Guest found improved social functioning 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. Our objective was to identify, summarize, and methodologically evaluate studies quantifying the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. Animal models are used in experiments in the behavioural neurosciences that aim to contribute to the prevention and treatment of cognitive and affective disorders in human beings, such as anxiety and depression. Studies compared outcomes of individuals with an assistance dog to before they received the dog (six longitudinal studies), to participants on the waitlist to receive an assistance dog (five longitudinal and seven cross-sectional studies), or to participants without an assistance dog (eight cross-sectional studies). Oversight and inspection of facilities is provided by the U.S. Dept. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Other studies found increased social connectedness 3-months after receiving a mobility or hearing dog [31] and increased community integration 6, 12, 18, and 24 months after receiving a mobility service dog [14]. Positive outcomes included significant effects of having an assistance dog on psychological wellbeing, emotional functioning, self-esteem, and vitality. Studies made an average of 5.4 statistical comparisons on psychosocial outcomes, ranging from 115 comparisons. Second, there is inherent variation in both the quality and quantity of interactions from one assistance dog-owner pair to the next. All articles were screened by two independent reviewers (authors KR and JG) using Covidence systematic review software (Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia). Our first aim was to describe study characteristics of the literature. We found that similar to the range of study characteristics observed, there was considerable variation in the methodological rigor of included studies. Average age across all studies was 42 +/- 13 years old. Of 27 studies, 19 (70%) reported outcomes a quality of life measure with a total of 13 different standardized measures used. Therefore, the current literature is limited to correlational, rather than causal conclusions regarding the benefits of assistance dogs on the psychosocial health of their owners. Guide dogs were only assessed in four studies (all of which were cross-sectional, and one of which was an unpublished thesis [46]). MEDLINE search terms and search strategy. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, Dr. However, even within a single category, there are differences in assistance dog breeds, temperaments, and training that may significantly contribute to observed variance across studies. Studies on psychiatric service dogs, emotional support dogs, and pet dogs were excluded. Exclusion criteria were then used to select articles based on the following (in order): (1) irrelevant to study topic; (2) assessed an excluded study population (psychiatric service dogs, therapy dogs, emotional support dogs, or companion dogs); (3) did not report quantitative outcomes from assistance dog placement (literature reviews, instrument development, not original research); (4) reported unrelated outcomes (puppy raising, service dog training, or animal-related outcomes); (5) reported only non-psychosocial outcomes (medical or physical); (6) methodological exclusions (qualitative, case studies, single-subject design); (7) no full text available. In addition, many studies did not account for confounding variables such as having a pet dog, the progressiveness or type of disability, or relationship status. To achieve the third aim of the reviewto summarize outcomespsychosocial outcomes within each study were extracted. Finally, in discussion sections, most studies (22/27; 81%) stated at least two limitations of their study. Overall, studies addressed an average of 62% of methodological consideration items with a range of 23% (3/13) to 100% (15/15; denominators were variable as there were two items not applicable to all study designs). Ironically, those animals that are likely to be the best models for psychopathology are also likely to be considered the . In other contexts, dogs can be specially trained to provide specific benefits to individuals with impairments, disabilities, or chronic conditions as trained assistance animals. The latter offers a more cynical take on animal welfare, namely that. To summarize study outcomes, extracted items included statistical comparisons for any psychosocial outcomes from included studies. Purdue University Libraries, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America. r/psychology How to get your children to eat more fruits and vegetables: Children will eat more fruits and vegetables if families take more time to eat meals. Limitations Still, some harms will remain, and ethically, one must weigh those harms against the potential benefits (for humans and for the animals themselves) to be obtained from the research. In fact, nine new articles were identified (three theses, six publications) that had been published since the last review on this topic in 2012 [9]. Not only are companion dogs prevalent in modern society, but dogs are also often intentionally incorporated into therapeutic processes in the contexts of animal-assisted activities (AAA) and animal-assisted therapy [AAT; 1]. Even procedures as simple as drawing a blood sample or testing an animal on a cognitive task must be approved by the local IACUC before the work can begin. Experiments can take place to determine if a product or idea will work as intended. Human participants in these studies included those with hearing or visual impairments, diabetes, and seizure disorders. Table 4 summarizes the social outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general social functioning, loneliness, and social participation. Other self-evaluation outcomes assessed with null findings included no differences in self-concept between control groups and those with mobility service dogs [37] or guide dogs [46], no differences in attitude towards a disability 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28] or among guide dog users compared to a control group [38], and no differences in flourishing among guide dog users compared to a control group [46].
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